The information provided is intended solely to assist the understanding of the reader. None of the information provided nor references cited is admitted to be prior art to the present invention. Each of the references cited is incorporated herein in its entirety.
Receptor protein tyrosine kinases (RPTKs) regulate key signal transduction cascades that control cellular growth and proliferation. The Stem Cell Factor (SCF) receptor c-kit is a type III transmembrane RPTK that includes five extracellular immunoglobulin (IG) domains, a single transmembrane domain, and a split cytoplasmic kinase domain separated by a kinase insert segment. C-kit plays an important role in the development of melanocytes, mast, germ, and hematopoietic cells.
Stem Cell Factor (SCF) is a protein encoded by the SI locus, and has also been called kit ligand (KL) and mast cell growth factor (MGF), based on the biological properties used to identify it (reviewed in Tsujimura, Pathol Int 1996, 46:933-938; Loveland, et al., J. Endocrinol 1997, 153:337-344; Vliagoftis, et al., Clin Immunol 1997, 100:435-440; Broudy, Blood 1997, 90:1345-1364; Pignon, Hermatol Cell Ther 1997, 39:114-116; and Lyman, et al., Blood 1998, 91:1101-1134.). Herein we use the abbreviation SCF to refer to the ligand for the c-Kit RTK.
SCF is synthesized as a transmembrane protein with a molecular weight of 220 or 248 Dalton, depending on alternative splicing of the mRNA to encode exon 6. The larger protein can be proteolytically cleaved to form a soluble, glycosylated protein which noncovalently dimerizes. Both the soluble and membrane-bound forms of SCF can bind to and activate c-Kit. For example, in the skin, SCF is predominantly expressed by fibroblasts, keratinocytes, and endothelial cells, which modulate the activity of melanocytes and mast cells expressing c-Kit. In bone, marrow stromal cells express SCF and regulate hematopoiesis of c-Kit expressing stem cells. In the gastrointestinal tract, intestinal epithelial cells express SCF and affect the interstitial cells of Cajal and intraepithelial lymphocytes. In the testis, sertoli cells and granulosa cells express SCF which regulates spermatogenesis by interaction with c-Kit on germ cells.
Additional RPTK proteins, for example Ret, and NTRK1, have been described (Takahashi & Cooper, Mol Cell Biol. 1987, 7:1378-85; Bothwell, Cell. 1991, 65:915-8.). Ret and NTRK1 play a role in the development and maturation of specific components of the nervous system. Alterations in Ret and NTRK1 have been associated with several human diseases, including some forms of cancer and developmental abnormalities. The correlation between genetic alteration and the appearance of various diseases has contributed to the concept that one gene can be responsible for more than one disease. Moreover, genetic alterations in both Ret and NTRK1 have been observed that belong to either “gain of function” or “loss of function” class of mutations. In fact, receptor rearrangements or point mutations convert Ret and NTRK1 into dominantly acting transforming genes leading to thyroid tumors, whereas inactivating mutations, associated with Hirschsprung's disease (HSCR) and congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis (CIPA), impair Ret and NTRK1 functions, respectively.
A co-crystal structure of c-kit kinase domain with the compound STI-571 (Gleevec, Imatinib) is reported by Mol et al. (J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278:31461-4). A structure of auto-inhibited c-kit, along with a structure of c-kit in complex with STI-571 is described by Mol et al., (J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279:31655-63). Cloning, crystallization conditions and structure determination are also described.
Modulation of c-Kit using indolinone compounds is described in Lipson et al., U.S. 20040002534 (U.S. application Ser. No. 10/600,868, filed Jun. 23, 2003).
Aberrant expression and/or activation of c-Kit has been implicated in a variety of pathologic states. For example, evidence for a contribution of c-Kit to neoplastic pathology includes its association with leukemias and mast cell tumors, small cell lung cancer, testicular cancer, and some cancers of the gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system. In addition, c-Kit has been implicated in playing a role in carcinogenesis of the female genital tract sarcomas of neuroectodermal origin, and Schwann cell neoplasia associated with neurofibromatosis. It was found that mast cells are involved in modifying the tumor microenvironment and enhancing tumor growth (Yang et al., J Clin Invest. 2003, 112:1851-1861; Viskochil, J Clin Invest. 2003, 112:1791-1793). Accordingly, there is a need in the art for modulators of c-kit activity.